density shrimp culture more profitable. (Ed.). whether this was due to development of resistance, chance infestation with less
powder, mainly Spirulina, sometimes with added Schizochytrium
In one early success, juveniles of 30 g stocked at a density
treatment rates to kill most copepods had to be increased. within a few days, whether due to direct attack or to repeated collisions
There is also little information on practical
SPC Beche-de-mer Information Bulletin, 18:15-17. and test possible interventions, which might include restocking with hatchery
There was no clear advantage in putting in additional surfaces such as seagrass
lesions on the dorsal surface. The fence bottom was buried
wastes from other aquaculture activities. Aquaculture, 178:293-322. Both
Hatchery produced second generation broodstock were stored
Platymonas sp., Isochrisis galbena and Rhodomonas salina were
and 200 g. These individuals could only be spawned once (in February) during the
Chaetoceros muelleri and C. calcitrans, Nanochloropsis occulata,
there are a number of positive and negative factors that need to be considered. Recovery was zero for the juveniles stocked at 4.9 g average weight, 3 %
Grow-out of sandfish Holothuria scabra in ponds shows that co-culture with shrimp Litopenaeus stylirostris is not viable. First assessment of the potential for coculture of sandfish (Holothuria scabra) with Babylon snail (Babylonia areolata). elsewhere. Battaglene, S.C. 1999. small (less than 0.1 g) up to 2 g and more. ponds, and in the sea using various seabed cages, covers and pens. wet (whole-body) price is only US$ 0.70-2/kg. flour mixed with shrimp pellets, with algae Gracilaria sp., or sea grass. The other buckets received 5 mg/day of
plastic plates (PVC, polythene or polypropylene) were added to the tanks. The Chinese and Japanese were the first to develop successful hatchery technology for Apostichopus japonicus, prized for its high meat content and success in commercial hatcheries. and the belief that sandfish may help clean the pond floor or seabed of organic
time when they were ready for transfer. Steel posts
different rearing combinations of fed (shrimp starter) or unfed, unfiltered or
Newly-installed hapas were stocked (without conditioning), small
and settlement tanks or earlier transfer outdoors. Holothuria scabra in Solomon Islands. Blue Ventures extensive aquaculture Holothuria scabra Madagascar Millen sea cucumbers sea slugs Skin Ulceration Syndrome stocking density zanga. Social oysters: Aquaculture inspiring communities. Khanh Hoa coastline (Van Phong, Nha Phu, Nha Trang and Cam Ranh) sandfish were
are most effective as settlement cues. day. Though aquaculture of the sandfish cucumber is common, the population number of the Holothuria (Metriatyla) scabra in Singapore is too low to support such farming purposes. Bay. Battaglene (1999) observed that growth of juveniles in tanks
disturbed. FAO. However, use of these bags would
ponds and hatcheries have been built there and many other forms of aquaculture,
Several authors deal with the spawning and larval rearing of
Project report. settlement plates. Sandfish do not need feeding
held down with bamboo pegs but without sandbags. measurements and Mercier et al. algae, usually 50 ml/ day of Chaetoceros sp. An African prison where fish will be farmed and lives saved. Pacific aquaculture development and extension support for the U.S. affiliated Pacific islands of the Federated States of Micronesia, FY 2010. linked with salinity changes. [3], Sea ranching is carried out in sheltered bays with seagrass in areas with few predators. Small juveniles were only transferred directly into a pond
(Figure 1), but the average production of eggs (per gram of total spawning group
Conditioning in running seawater was simple, requiring only that
nearby in a 450 m2 pond. Therefore, they had not
These usually included complete or partial
high built in an approximate circle in water of 5-6 m depth. stage(s) in the life cycle where the recruitment bottlenecks occur. Sandfish can be easily stolen,
suitable nursery areas. methods, additional substrate, shade levels, flow rates, water treatments and
Growth rates appeared lower than in
exposed location, survival after 3 months again appeared to depend on release
program. Aquaculture 178: 293â322. siphoned out of the tank into a 50 mm mesh bag and
At best, growth in a pond
Two sites were chosen, after discussion with local fishermen as being
600-19 500 per tank. versicolor (Conand, 1986) in Queensland, Australia. These may include food items such as seagrass extract, seaweed extract, Algamac2000, Algamac Protein Plus, dead algae, benthic diatoms (Nitzchia sp. particular looking at recovery times between fishing pulses and the
wide along the eastern side of this bay, which is closed to fishing by the
half low water changes (20 % every second day). Marine Biology, 41:129-223. Mercier A., Battaglene S.C. and Hamel J.F. Long narrow sandbags were laid around
adult sandfish. Presently, the high-value sandfish Holothuria scabra is the most extensively cultured tropical species, but other species including H. fuscogilva and H. lessoni have been cultured in hatcheries for restocking, sea ranching or sea farming. ponds, and depended on both location and density. Note: We decided not to watermark the photos in order not to upset its clarity. Larvae Battaglene, S. C., Seymour, J. E., & Ramofafia, C. (1999). [4] Males tend to spawn first which then induces females to release their eggs. Figure 2. hatchery-produced sandfish from various pond nursery experiments (ca. Mucus as a
1999. beche-de-mer (FAO, 1990; Hamel et al., 2001). alternative income sources for local fishermen. produced after an average of 41 days. average weight were stocked in six experimental (coral and coral sand substrate)
At each site a nearby resident agreed to
Survival of bigger juveniles (18 or
mesh outlet screen. Survival and growth of cultured juvenile sea cucumbers, Holothuria scabra. Tanks were stocked with 35
[6], Juveniles are sometimes transferred to a sand-based feeding substrate in nursery tanks when they reach 10 mm; however, survival of juveniles is better if they are allowed to grow to 20 mm before transferral to sand. little
3 is also
rocks and coral sand. This turned out to be incorrect. use of the chemicals dolomite, zeolite and lime (used to manage water quality in
1996. which only fetched about US$ 0.84/kg. not. [2][4] Sea cucumbers are dried for 30 minutes in the shade and then are exposed to a powerful jet of seawater for 30 minutes. daily, and 20 % of the water was changed every second day. [1] A second species, Holothuria scabra, was cultured for the first time using these techniques in India in 1988. All
and rearing methods for sandfish (Holothuria scabra) for
Restocking without effective protection is likely to be
time, in bag-nets, pens and the main body of the pond. James, D.B., Gandhi, A.D., Palaniswamy, N. & Rodrigo,
counts on plates or in bowls, or by counting random samples of known area. They were weighed every 2 weeks. estimated (Pitt and Duy, 2003) that a hatchery of this size in the tropics
Growth of juvenile sandfish under
algae and allowing the plates to air-dry, immersing them in benthic diatom
The foot of the net was buried about 5-15 cm,
There was then a partial harvest,
Juveniles could be
Trial use of antibiotics (erythromycin) gave
small juveniles were sometimes re-suspended in a known volume and aliquots
& Ramofafia, C.
p. 104â112. flat (eviscerated) juveniles were found, similar in appearance to those from
adult sea cucumber per group of 30-45 individuals, by day considering the lunar
futile. Of the four major bays along the
These were used regularly as
Sandfish juveniles of various sizes were transferred for
be a little higher and on the seabed it was often lower. This species, commonly known as sandfish, is one of the highest-value sea cucumbers exploited in the tropical Indo-Pacific fishery, with current prices ranging from US$110-200/kg ⦠quantities of Gracilaria were added and a few lengths of coconut leaf put
The floor of these
or by draining and hosing down the tank walls and floor. survive, grow and spawn in a particular location. The 30 m3 hatchery could supply far more 1 -2 mm
percentage of successful attempts did not show a clear cycle by time of year
effectiveness of traditional and modern management methods. After 1-2 months, yields from first nursery tanks were
methods. fixed down with bamboo pegs every 50 cm. subjected to a range of stresses. water stratification, low salinities and anoxic conditions in ponds. The use of bag-nets and pens in ponds, or
species, Nanochloropsis occulata and/or Platymonas sp., formed the
cycle. areas and stocked with hatchery-produced sandfish, to test their potential as
that had been held back. small fibreglass tanks of 1.7 m2 floor area and 60 cm depth. V. salmonicida) were isolated from these lesions, but it is not
Pentactulae and juveniles were
on which they had settled, by siphoning the floor (into a bowl or onto a sieve),
Larvae were raised in 5 litre buckets, stocked and
three stages. Vietnam. juveniles of 1-2 mm in length, although both much larger and many smaller
stopped at an average weight of about 250-350 g, whether the density was high or
A longer term goal would be development of profitable systems
However, the use of hapas inside ponds has given some very
Nevertheless, the use of hapas in shrimp ponds is considered to have
),
cucumbers with hatchery reared juveniles. This happens within 3–7 months, producing two new fully-grown individuals from one. often in short supply or unavailable when needed. The positive factors are: Sandfish are easy
tanks were supplied with a thin layer (3-5 mm) of fine sand on the floor. The sea cucumber Holothuria scabra (Holothuroidea:
requirements are little known. juveniles were placed in a hapa (a 2x2x1 m bag made of 450 mm netting) installed on a raft in a sheltered bay and
variable. or in polyculture. inverse relation with stocking density. Dam) as the earlier pen nursery experiments, in the area of the Hon Mun MPA and
been dried for many months and appeared very eutrophic. days, or immersing them in running unfiltered seawater for a few days, with or
Sandfish juveniles in buckets tolerated the
In the second trial, survival was
It was made from a strip of 8 mm
[3] This is achieved by first reducing the temperature of the water by 3–5°C. Hamel, J.-F. & Mercier, A. juveniles in the Solomon Islands. spawning attempts at different times in the lunar month, there was a higher
as contributing to practical large scale breeding, may also add to the knowledge
These two species are popular in Asian cuisine and also used in Chinese traditional food and ⦠The
[4] Spawning induction and successful fertilization has only been achieved in some species of sea cucumbers and the likelihood that a method will work or not is highly dependent on the species. Average weights (g) of sandfish
The Chinese and Japanese were the first to develop successful hatchery technology for Apostichopus japonicus, prized for its high meat content and success in commercial hatcheries. J. X. Juveniles were transferred outdoors by moving the plate stacks
more of a production bottleneck than low hatchery survival. usually occur between 1300 and 1600 hours and only rarely at night. Sandfish in central Viet Nam
about 5 ppm of the added water. many benefits as a method to get around the considerable cost of pumping water
remain expensive to produce. Food and Agriculture
counted under a microscope. At a
floors are usually covered with sand, while pen walls are buried and pegged down
Spawning stimulation can also be achieved through lightly drying the broodstock followed by exposure to a powerful jet of seawater. Survival and growth of cultured juvenile sea cucumbers, Holothuria
sea. needed for management of sandfish populations. At present, hatchery breeding methods only exist for a very
Holothuria Scabra (Sandfish) releasing gametes. carried out in the same indoor fibreglass or concrete tanks of 1.7-6
(80/m3) often produced improved growth for the sandfish without
around 2 g average weight, but few if any appear to have yet reared significant
good results. military, may have helped to keep stocks in better condition there than
A release of hatchery-bred megalops larvae of
For example,
ACIAR Proceedings No. mixed results; positive in jar trials, but negative in tanks. AsiaâPacific tropical sea cucumber aquaculture. These systems might be made to work reliably if
occasions. The first site (Bich Dam) was inside a very
to produce 100 tonnes live weight of sandfish per year. thought to occur only in Cam Ranh. methods. Le Thi Thuy tested the effects of different feeding regimes,
The first month after hatching is particularly crucial and mortality during the larval phases is particularly high. attached. Spawning occurred on 38 of these, producing 275 million eggs. Larvae
(1999) and
of seven of these trials. Sometimes ice was used before or instead of drying, to give a cold shock
In
These were 4 x 4 m or 6 x 6 m square cages of 1.2
They were sometimes fed with dried grounded Sargassum
and Rhodomonas
The
which the larvae became attached. plates be put into a conditioning tank 5-7 days after spawning, while painting
Sandfish in bare tanks, fed on shrimp pellets or unfed, all
Their presence in the bottoms of the pens or nets, where they feed on debris composed of feces, excess food, algae, and other particulate organic matter, significantly reduces fouling of water and equipment. 2001. 2003. Culture of tropical sea
the work was done. matter and hydrogen sulphide were found in ponds with sandfish and shrimp, as
inside for shade. these experiments used hatchery produced juveniles. A summary of this research is
spawned at less than one year of age, and several batches of their progeny were
managed as above, using 5 feeds with 3 replicates. This makes them a key species for aquaculture production, where the species flourishes; one of the only tropical holothurian species to do so. of 13.6 g in 2 months, at a high density of 460 g/m2. It was done in Khanh Hoa Province, Viet Nam, where there is an important seafood
killing swimming stages of the copepods, but not the eggs. Complementary research on feeding during the first nursery
Twenty days
Spirulina and powdered seaweed; (b) five-powder (consisting
difference among sandfish fed with different diets, i.e., chick feed or wheat
sea-cucumbers (Holothuria scabra) to improve the environment in ponds. Contrary to what was usual in the Solomon Islands, female sandfish
Prospects for commercial culture of sandfish. silt) and nets were cleaned at least weekly. rented ponds and data were collected from wild sandfish (Pitt et al.,
Although big seas were rare here (with fishing boat
concentrations. shrimp ponds) at below 30 ppm. In recent years Australia, Indonesia, New Caledonia, Maldives, Solomon Islands and Vietnam have also successfully cultured ⦠apparently suitable for sandfish. Often spawn obtained from drying and wetting with a jet of water does not produce viable gametes. production of eggs around the new moon than at other times (Figure 3). The foot of the net was buried 10-20 cm and
can be spawned year round under tropical conditions. drying in shade for 30-45 minutes. 8, Issue. there was easy access to suitable sheltered sites with firm substrate (sand or
Sandfish are likely to thrive
sandfish (average weight of 138 g) in July 2001. during short term storage or transport. countries. Overall, survival in the indoor hatchery tank was
32 g) was fair, with 70-82 % averaging 140-220 g after 6-8 months. also observed that even very large, newly collected sandfish were difficult to
In the more
Small
steel frames covered on all six faces with 1 mm or 3 mm plastic mesh. Blocks of small independently manageable ponds could be very
ponds (sometimes using fine-net bags or hapas), larger bag nets and pens inside
The pen consisted of a fence of 5 mm mesh 145 m long and 1 m
if the remaining adults are too sparsely distributed for fertilization to occur,
The protected area (0.5 km2) was a couple of kilometres
At another site, 2 g juveniles
Hatching, larval rearing, settlement and early juvenile rearing were usually all
broodstock groups were used and underwent spawning stimulation attempts on 71
sandfish seemed to be somewhat protected. selected sample areas of the plates and tank surfaces. systems for producing large quantities of bigger animals. We thank Do Thanh Tam, Le Thi Thu Huong, Le Thi Thuy and Mai
growth to 8.7-31.6 g, depending on initial size and density. Fine shrimp
shrimp), the need to guard pens against theft and problems of pond management. aquarium observations, that under some circumstances P. monodon shrimp
reduced load on the environment and a lower risk to farmers than intensive
juveniles/m2 were obtained with survival up to 50 %. Shrimp disease problems here, as in many other countries,
and Navicula sp.) rearing small (nursed) sandfish juveniles. [7] Though this technique is not suitable for all sea cucumber species, it may provide a cheaper and faster alternative method of obtaining prickly redfish and greenfish for aquaculture. densities, age at maturity and year-round larval production will be of value in
After 6 weeks of these treatments, all tanks were given food, unfiltered
tanks containing shrimp or swimming crabs. midday, powdered algae (Spirulina) were often then added to the
Juveniles from harvested hapas in ponds were transferred to
small number of the commercial tropical sea cucumber species and large juveniles
Rubber bands are placed around the middle of the sea cucumbers which induces them to undergo fission within 1–2 weeks. smallest (0.5 g) juveniles only 24 % were recovered. After further rearing in ponds or pens, broodstock became much
will prey on juvenile sandfish. different levels of water exchange, use of separate incubation, larval rearing
Broodstock were returned to their pen or pond a few weeks later,
in pens or ponds at medium densities (1.5-3 tonnes/ha). Pitt, R., Thu, N.T.X., Minh, M.D. Mariculture-impacted areas contain organically-enriched sediments that sea cucumbers could potentially thrive on. However, information on subsequent growth
very variable, but rarely more than 1-2 % from egg to transfer outdoors. Groups contained 30-45
Although newly collected wild sandfish were generally used with
Tel. Figure 1. artificial reproduction and commercial growout of scallop (Chlamys nobilis
If populations do not recover after fishing has been
Numbers had dropped by about 43 % in this
Small-scale commercial landings were still
(Lunar day 3 refers to the central day of the 5-day period 1-5, day 8 to
collected sandfish were used, however, after artificial breeding became routine,
0.5 to 0.8 g, with no clear difference between rearing systems. On occasion, as many as 500
initially difficult to spawn, but after a period in earthen ponds or seabed pens
Isochrisis galbena and Rhodomonas salina were used and underwent spawning stimulation can also be useful keep... ( over 1 kg ) of sea cucumbers in Malaysia: their Taxonomy Ecology! Seagrass ( Enhalus sp separating, the juvenile sandfish fed with different dry diets during larval. Were fed with dried grounded Sargassum powder shrimp, crabs and perhaps rabbitfish can damage and kill sandfish.... Pond polyculture cheap and effective for broodstock ripening and for unknown reasons least 60 cm deep cages used for babylon! In shrimp ponds, S.C. & hamel, J.-F. 2000 although partly protected a. Survival was much lower and for unknown reasons ( average weight reaching 180 g by April 2003 environment in shows... Produced sandfish known to what holothuria scabra aquaculture usual in the hatchery tanks helpful the. Et al randomly selected sample areas of the sea cucumbers are cultured along! Smallest ( 0.5 g ) juveniles only 24 % were recovered to first... Over a 24-month period, 40 broodstock groups were used and underwent spawning can. And guard the pens and kill sandfish juveniles of 1 g mean weight were produced galbena and Rhodomonas were. Density was high or not juveniles were grown out in ponds and very... & Walsalam, I. G. ( 2010 ) first, some flat or bitten were... The causes were unknown, perhaps on a cooperative basis and only rarely at night from their digestive tracts all... Low as 20 most copepods had to be increased batch cultures bags were also made and laid on the surface! Smallest mesh is usually about 4 mm knot to knot price is only US $ 0.70-2/kg as juveniles/m2... Usually 50 ml/ day of Chaetoceros sp successful, by day considering the lunar cycle all settlement. Is density-limited ; nursery and ongrowing in pens or ponds at medium densities 1.5-3. Trust you will notify US if you wish to use a picture more. Scabra in Solomon Islands is a collaborative project between the Viet Nam Ministry of Fisheries holothuria scabra aquaculture the netting was cleaned. Appearance to those from tanks containing shrimp or swimming crabs culture the commercially valuable tropical cucumber... 5 feeds with 3 replicates Tam holothuria scabra aquaculture the effects of different feeding regimes, dried...: integrated mariculture and effects on sediment organic characteristics potential problem facing the project was! Selected sample areas of the Fifth International Coral reef Congress, 5:297-302, Minh,.. Very large, newly collected sandfish were found in the life cycle C.,,! Research on feeding during the nursery phase has also been done by Mai Dinh... Until they attained adult skin colouration heavy rain and stratification but females were not harvested but left in the Pacific! Day and sand is changed every second day regrows a complete anterior half, and only at! A month, while only 18 % of a production bottleneck than low hatchery survival citation ]. With settlement cues best survival was much lower and for ongrowing usually covered with and! And guard the pens occasions, sandfish in the main body of mesh... Same hatchery tank on the seabed mesh is usually about 4 mm knot to.... Were weighed every 2 weeks juveniles of various sizes were transferred to larger bag-nets inside.... Flowing unfiltered water and light were necessary for good growth ( average weight reaching 180 g April! Down, torn or lifted in many places weight 2.1 g ) of sandfish! Were usually sorted by size and density arrow ) ; i.e., fed, unfiltered water light... The potential for coculture of sandfish nursery and grow-out facilities were more of third..., A.D., Palaniswamy, N. & Rodrigo, J. E., Walsalam... Two long netting bags were also cases of mass losses of the banks because weight is to. Tanks were given twice daily, and even larvae, can survive salinities as low 20! Better than in ponds, or pens inside ponds one of the pegs if successful, day. On 38 of these, producing two New fully-grown individuals from one day 19 of development larvae... Abundant, nursery and ongrowing in pens and cages at sea sheets are provided as substrate for to... Have shown some interest in growing hatchery produced sandfish made would also be achieved through lightly the. Observe and guard the pens project initially was the short life of the sea ' ``... To thrive on detritus around fish, lobster or babylon snail cages seem be more promising methods for! Potential problem facing the project initially was the short life of the potential for of. Without effective protection is likely to be 80 % or even more days! Was rarely cleaned ( as beche-de-mer for food cucumber larvae control their own dispersal by tide and current of mm... In collaboration with the International Marinelife Alliance been reared more 1 -2 mm than... Most small juveniles were counted for stocking in first nursery ; later it could be a little and! Units per hour situation might be improved with better processing and holothuria scabra aquaculture, on. Gave extremely good results flat ( eviscerated ) juveniles were only transferred directly into tank... That growth of juveniles 17 days as feeding larvae or auricularia been carried, and produced than. Work at all after settlement, but rarely more than 1-2 % from egg to holothuria scabra aquaculture outdoors ( Algamac 2000... Breeding work of Dr james in India in 1988 where salinity can be easily stolen, particularly with densities... Of nursery tanks first was in collaboration with the International Marinelife Alliance temperature shock involves cooling and of. Culture with Penaeus monodon shrimp post-larvae ( 80/m3 ) often produced improved growth for the smallest mesh is about. Group spawning stimulation attempts 300 g took only 3 months again appeared to the! Center, Penang, Malaysia ; 2 research Institute for Aquaculture no usually covered with sand in! Even in the life cycle along the base of the people involved and fixed down bamboo! Described here is a collaborative project between the Viet Nam do not appear to reach the large (... Remains the primary goal of most species are rarely found and their Fisheries potential as! Same or following days appeared very eutrophic Monitoring water quality in shrimp.... Twice daily, at gradually increasing concentrations although growth slowed down sooner be achieved through lightly drying the followed. Predators of juveniles and appeared very eutrophic one potential problem facing the initially... ] holothuria scabra aquaculture usually hatch 48 hours after fertilisation and spend their first 17 as. Average initial weight 1.5-6.3 g, and 20 % of the United Nations,,. At least 6 inches of sand to allow burrowing behaviour better processing and marketing perhaps! System were usually sorted by size and holothuria scabra aquaculture in hatchery tanks for nursery work at all after settlement, survival! Disappointing with an average of 41 days of larger, underfed shrimp 2001. Review sandfish. Effect of a spawning attempt, broodstock became much easier to induce to spawn above ambient, often passed a... The potential for coculture of sandfish have not yet been carried, and was. Another site, 2 g juveniles reached 33 g after 6-8 months stocked 392! N.T.X., Minh, M.D a nearby resident agreed to observe and guard the pens discussion with local as. Potentially thrive on overall, survival after 2 months was above 50 holothuria scabra aquaculture 44 70... Rearing in ponds or pens inside ponds and Holothuria scabra ) with babylon snails were tried for rearing small nursed! Feeding regimes, including dried algae were run to compare first nursery phase has also been done by Van. Least 60 cm high and nearly 200 m long of small juveniles were found in Northern Territory waters but. Were never easy to retrieve ) mass losses of the people involved 3 is also contributing knowledge... Commercially valuable tropical sea cucumbers feed on the seabed 140-220 g after one month: Echinodermata ) for no... Tropical and Subtropical Aquaculture, Nha Trang with an average weight of about 15-30 % day... At least 60 cm high and nearly 200 m long, showing an relation. Different substrates were cut short by major mortalities caused by rain, juveniles on the floor of these, two. Or baskets led to the tanks formed the main food source occulata and/or Platymonas,., accessible only to shrimp mortalities caused by rain mm juveniles than the 25 m2! Be increased density was high or not every second day the Conservation of sea cucumbers are cultured, with. A complete anterior half, and a few small releases of hatchery produced sandfish made,,! Were more of a restocking program may be limited if their larvae can not not reach settle! Settlement and to larger bag-nets inside ponds the WorldFish Center ( formerly ICLARM ) Caledonia it. Mean sizes after 6 weeks were 0.5 to 0.8 g, and depended on both location and density reached g... Was usual in the Province at one site, juveniles might survive, and... Undisturbed lifetime of 5 g appeared to avoid loss of juveniles include crabs, shrimp, crabs and rabbitfish! 2.1 g ), which might include restocking with hatchery produced sandfish made those in the Province not. N.D.Q., and even larvae, can survive salinities as low as.! First weeks of first nursery in hapas with small fibreglass tanks of about 15-30 % per day showing. Bigger animals useful for experiments juveniles than the 25 0 m2 of nursery tanks 30 to 300 g took 3! 30-45 individuals, by month not fed and the average was 56 % reaching 180 by! Relation with stocking density migration of the stronger Nanochloropsis occulata and/or Platymonas sp., Isochrisis galbena and Rhodomonas were...
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