how did ancient greek hoplites fight

Fagan, Garrett. Perhaps the only sentence here that I would not quarrel with makes the point that we have very limited literary evidence for Archaic warfare. Furley, William D., and Jan Maarten Bremer. A passage from Xenophon makes clear that doing the paean differed from marching in time to pipes (Anabasis 6.1.11). History of the Art of War, vol. “ ‘I Fell upon Him like a Furious Arrow’: Toward a Reconstruction of the Assyrian Tactical System.” In New Perspectives on Ancient Warfare, ed. And the three shields that have survived with enough wood to be identified were poplar, willow, and poplar or willow—precisely the woods recommended by the Roman naturalist Pliny for shields (Natural History 16.209). G. C. Lewis and H. Tufnell, 2nd ed. They would … stand so close that the edges of their shields actually touched.”28 If they needed to act more aggressively, they would bring in men armed with modified shields, cut almost in half so they weighed less and could be swung around more easily. Krentz, Peter. … The Thureophoroi were armed with a long thrusting spear, a short sword and, if needed, javelins. Sometimes ancient Greek shields had a thin layer of bronze over the wood. Warfare among Greek city-states was a seasonally scheduled event to allow for soldier farmers to tend to their farms. ———. Scholars and reenactors debate how hoplites held their spears when they charged. The Chigi olpe, for instance, was painted in Corinth about 640, from which Martin Nil-son concluded that “the Chigi vase gives the lower boundary; hoplite tactics were fully enacted in the second half of the seventh century” (1929: 240). Die Italiker in der Poebene. “The Charge at Marathon.” Classical Journal 71:339–42. “Fighting by the Rules: The Invention of the Hoplite Agôn.” Hesperia 71:23–39, reprinted in E. Wheeler, ed., The Armies of Classical Greece (Burlington: Ashgate, 2007), 111–27. Soldiers usually held their spears in an underhand position when approaching but once they came into close contact with their opponents, they were held in an overhand position ready to strike. 46:27–33. London: Duckworth and Classical Press of Wales, 125–66. ———. The Hoplites were the ancient Greek infantry. The rear ranks held their spears underarm, and raised their shields upwards at increasing angles. In war the Greek generals would give their warriors the knowledge to fight in a fashion that would allow them to become a dominant force on the battlefield. 1948. Greek Hymns: Selected Cult Songs from the Archaic to the Hellenistic period, 2 vols. Gates of Fire: An Epic Novel of the Battle of Thermopylae. 1869–70. 2000. The size and shape of hoplite shield created a feeling of “absolute protection.” I doubt it. This Protocorinthian jug fit his theory that the hoplite phalanx originated on the island of Euboia, because he believed that Protocorinthian pottery was in fact produced in Chalkis.23. “Symbol and Story in Geometric Art.” In Ancient Greek Art and Iconography, ed. “Ein homerischer Rundschild mit eine Bügel.” Jahreshefte des Österreichischen Archäologischen Institutes in Wien 12:1–70. “Hoplites and Heroes: Sparta’s Contribution to the Technique of Ancient Warfare.” Journal of Hellenic Studies 97:11–27. 1998. But a warrior could rotate the shield quickly by moving his left hand counterclockwise 180 degrees, lessening the likelihood of dislocating his arm. Wood did the work. [5] Most hoplites were not professional soldiers and often lacked sufficient military training. The hoplite army consisted of heavy infantrymen. “The Killing Zone.” In Hanson 1991:87–109. The short sword was a secondary weapon, used if or when their spears were broken or lost, or if the phalanx broke rank. Strauss, Barry S. 1996. Hoplites could also alternatively carry the kopis, a heavy knife with a forward-curving blade. This allowed the hoplite soldier more mobility with the shield, as well as the ability to capitalize on its offensive capabilities and better support the phalanx. As the richer warriors began to adopt the porpax shield, they decorated it more impressively with bronze fittings, which then begin to turn up at Olympia. Often small, numbering around 6000 at its peak to no more than 1000 soldiers at lowest point,[32] divided into six mora or battalions, the Spartan army was feared for its discipline and ferocity. Known as an Argive grip, it placed the handle at the edge of the shield, and was supported by a leather fastening (for the forearm) at the centre. If the Boeotian shield on vases is often used by a hero, perhaps that is because it was used by aristocraticpromachoi, aristocrats who fought in the front line. I am grateful to Gregory Viggiano and Donald Kagan for inviting me to participate in the 2008 conference at Yale University on the origins of the Greek phalanx. Equipment was not standardized, although there were doubtless trends in general designs over time, and between city-states. In battle, hoplites fought as a team. To judge by Xenophon’s Anabasis (6.5.25), they lowered them on command to an underhand thrusting position, thumbs forward. Detienne, Marcel. Hanson actually quotes from only one ancient account, the second part of the battle of Koroneia (not the initial fight), where Agesilaos “made a furious frontal attack on the Thebans,” according to Xenophon, “and clashing their shields together they pushed, they fought, they killed, they died” (Hellenika 4.3.19 = Agesilaos 2.12). W. J. Woodhouse had the latter in mind in his 1933 book King Agis III of Sparta and His Campaign in Arkadia in 418 B.C. Such a small weapon would be particularly useful after many hoplites had started to abandon body armour during the Peloponnesian War. The hoplite phalanx proved itself far superior to the Persian infantry at such conflicts as the Battle of Marathon, Thermopylae, and the Battle of Plataea. Only a complete madman would have gone into battle in ancient Greece without armor—and that madman would have, of course, been almost instantly killed. For hoplites outside the phalanx, see Rawlings 2000. The Other Greeks: The Family Farm and the Agrarian Roots of Western Civilization, 2nd ed. See Krentz 1985, 1994 (where “6 m” and “3 m” are misprints for “6 feet: and “3 feet”); van Wees 2000, 2004. Military Theory and Practice in the Age of Xenophon. Hanson’s gritty Western Way of War, in particular, has had an enormous impact on popular understanding of how Greeks fought, from Steven Pressfield’s Gates of Fire (1998)—in which Pressfield created an othismós drill that he called, memorably, “tree-fucking”—to Zack Snyder’s movie 300 (2007), in which the Spartans fight with the underhanded grip favored by Hanson. [20] Making estimations of the speed of the transition reached as long as 300 years, from 750–450 BC. In his view, there was a longish period of development lasting until the sixth century. During this period, Athens and Sparta rose to a position of political eminence in Greece, and their rivalry in the aftermath of the Persian wars brought Greece into renewed internal conflict. It is a matter of contention, among historians, whether the hoplite used the spear overarm or underarm. Peter Bol’s study of the bronze shield fragments found at Olympia suggests that bronze rims, bronze emblems, and bronze facings came into use no earlier than the last third of the seventh century. The History of Greece. Hoplite-style warfare was influential, and influenced several other nations in the Mediterranean. ———. “The ‘Hoplite Reform’ Revisited.” Dialogues d’histoire ancienne 19:47–61. Hans van Wees. Greek battles did not take place on village streets, and the Greeks were very well acquainted with their own military history. Cartledge, Paul. Garrett G. Fagan and Matthew Trundle. Archaic Greek cavalry was really mounted infantry, men who rode to get into position but dismounted and fought on foot. 1852. A good commander, such as Cyrus the Younger in Xenophon’s Anabasis, would walk to within about 600 m from the enemy, perform the paean, and then advance to within 200 m before ordering the final charge (1.8.17). These troops were used as a link between the light infantry and the phalanx, a form of medium infantry to bridge the gaps. Neither mentions pushing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. A rank was a row of hoplites, their shields held in their left hands and overlapping slightly. Two years later, he developed this view in a long article, ‘Über die Einführungszeit der geschlossenen Phalanx,” in which he looked not to late sources such as Pausanias and Polyainos, but to Archaic poets.22 He argued that Euboians distinguished between hoplites and lightly armed men, excluding everyone but hoplites from the ranks during the Lelantine War, which he dated to the middle of the seventh century. A big shield would be enough, for a brave or desperate man. You have to watch closely to catch Alan Pittman doing it in one of his YouTube demonstration videos, so quickly and smoothly does his hand change position as he raises his arm.45 J. F. Lazenby argues that changing grips would have been more difficult after the fighting started, and this would be particularly true if Matthew is correct that the weights of the spearhead and butt spike mean the spear’s center of gravity would be well toward the butt spike, not in the middle, so that perhaps 2 m of his spear would extend in front of the warrior.46 Lazenby points out that underhand thrusts shown on vases are invariably in duels, while the (admittedly few) vases showing hoplite lines about to engage show raised spears. W. J. Renfroe. [4] The hoplites were primarily represented by free citizens – propertied farmers and artisans – who were able to afford a linen armour or a bronze armour suit and weapons (estimated at a third to a half of its able-bodied adult male population). Its continued use has important implications for the nature of the Archaic phalanx. On the role of the fleet in developing its rowers’ political consciousness, see Strauss 1996. Confronted by huge numbers of enemy troops, individual city-states could not realistically fight alone. Oxford: Oxford University Press. J.-P. Vernant. The hoplites had much discipline and were taught to be loyal and trustworthy. Geschichte der Kriegskunst im Rahmen der politischen Geschichte, vol. Toronto: Edgar Kent. Armor was more commonly made out of linen fabric glued together, called linothorax. 39:375–89. In addition to being used as a secondary weapon, the sauroter doubled to balance the spear, but not for throwing purposes. [23] Rapid Adoptionists propose that the double grip, hoplon shield that was required for the phalanx formation was so constricting in mobility that once it was introduced, dark age, free flowing warfare was inadequate to fight against the hoplites only escalating the speed of the transition. Each hoplite provided his own equipment. Marathon 2,500: Proceedings of the Marathon Conference 2010. P. H. Blyth’s reconstruction of the best-preserved example, a fifth-century poplar specimen now in the Museo Gregoriano Etrusco, weighs 6.2 kg. Dark age warfare transitioned into hoplite warfare in the 8th century BC. ), as Professor Woodhouse supposes. Did they change to an overhand grip (thumbs backward, spearheads forward) before they reached the enemy? Santosuosso, Antonio. The richer upper-class hoplites typically had a bronze cuirass of either the bell or muscled variety, a bronze helmet with cheekplates, as well as greaves and other armour. 36. Here the Greeks are fighting inside their camp wall, their backs to their ships, when a small group of nine champions, each one named by the poet, rallies together. The fragmented political structure of Ancient Greece, with many competing city-states, increased the frequency of conflict, but at the same time limited the scale of warfare. 1839. Grundy 1948: 1.268. 1991. Cahn, David. A regiment of big men meeting a regiment of smaller men in a circumscribed space, such as, for example, a village street, will almost certainly drive the latter back…. While Alexander's army mainly fielded Pezhetairoi (= Foot Companions) as his main force, his army also included some classic hoplites, either provided by the League of Corinth or from hired mercenaries. 2000. Hoplites had customized armour, the shield was decorated with family or clan emblems, although in later years these were replaced by symbols or monograms of the city states. A few years ago Simon Hornblower commented that “only an unusually arrogant scholar could claim to know exactly what kind of thing went on in a hoplite battle.”69 I am thankful that he included the words “unusually” and “exactly.” I feel close to certain that hoplites never carried 30+ kg of equipment. Sitch’s heaviest version, 0.91 m in diameter, faced with brass and lined with leather, weighs 9 kg. ———. [23] The historians believe that the phalanx was created individually by military forces, but was so effective that others had to immediately adapt their way of war to combat the formation. The formation proved successful in defeating the Persians when employed by the Athenians at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC during the First Greco-Persian War. Soldiers, Citizens, and the Symbols of War: From Classical Greece to Republican Rome, 500–167 B.C. In any case, Johannes Kromayer and Georg Veith used the word Massendruck in their 1928 handbook, though they did not amplify what they meant by it.60 They may have meant that the entire front rank or two pushed, or they may have meant that all ranks pushed together. Such armies could not match the Persians. Boston: T. Bedlington and C. Ewer. ———. Many scholars since have followed his lead.6, I have discussed the equipment item by item in two other publications and do not want to repeat myself needlessly here.7 Drawing on studies of surviving pieces of Greek equipment, especially from the German excavations at Olympia, and on the reconstructions made by reenactment groups in Britain and Australia, I conclude that Hanson’s picture of lumbering hoplites must be moderated. Fraser discusses the battle of Syracuse (Thucydides 6.70.2 [the reference is garbled in his text]), the “give me one more step” story from the battle of Leuktra (Polyainos 2.3.2), and the battle of Delion (Thucydides 4.96). ", This page was last edited on 20 December 2020, at 10:54. The exact time when hoplite warfare was developed is uncertain, the prevalent theory being that it was established sometime during the 8th or 7th century BC, when the "heroic age was abandoned and a far more disciplined system introduced" and the Argive shield became popular. Schwartz, Adam. Greek writers applied the term “hoplite” to Egyptians carrying shields that reached to their feet and to Macedonians who used a much smaller shield.10 Did all Greek hoplites carry this porpax shield? A Boeotian shield appears to have two cut-out arcs, one on each longer side, with the handgrip on a shorter side. In the 8th or 7th century BC, Greek armies adopted the phalanx formation. Shields were neither impenetrable nor unbreakable. The ōthismós is as common in Homer as in hoplite warfare, but not in quite the sense Pritchett intended. When defending, an underarm carry absorbed more shock and could be 'couched' under the shoulder for maximum stability. A history of Greece; from the earliest period to the close of the generation contemporary with Alexander the Great, 12 vols. When a battle started, the soldiers ran towards each other independently and … Marshall, S.L.A. Bol, Peter. I do not see any way of resolving this dispute through further reading of ancient texts, vase paintings, and monuments. Snodgrass believes, only once the armour was in place that the phalanx formation became popular. Carey, Christopher, and Michael Edwards, eds. “Taktikè Technè—the Neglected Element in Classical ‘Hoplite’ Battles.” Ancient Society 41:45–82. The depth of the phalanx. Matured hoplites did not carry long-range weapons including javelins. Wheeler, Everett. The ancient Spartans did not, in fact, fight naked, nor did anyone else in classical Greece. Before George Grote, historians maintained that the Dorians introduced “the method of fighting with lines of heavy armed men, drawn up in close and regular order,” since Homer describes a different mode of combat and an anecdote in Polyainos credits the Herakleidai Prokles and Temenos with using pipers to help their men advance in rhythm in an unbreakable formation against the Lakedaimonians.16 Grote objected that the correctness of this view “cannot be determined … we have no historical knowledge of any military practice in Peloponnesus anterior to the hoplites with close ranks and protended spears.”17 Late nineteenth-century scholars then limited themselves to claiming that the Lakedaimonians had a trained mass formation by the time of the Messenian Wars in the eighth and seventh centuries. The early hoplite phalanx: Order or Disarray? ” Classica & Mediaevalia 53:31–64 the thrust. 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The ones he discusses are among those most frequently cited, and none proved.! Staatswesen. ” Klio 22:240–49 weapons, and Nathan Rosenstein, eds “ Alternative Agonies: hoplite Martial and combat beyond... Deflected by armour due to its use for other pieces of evidence, starts... Argue that hoplite warriors did not, the ground stained with blood many weighed only half as much existed the! Professional soldiers and often resulted in the same time as for the rest, hoplite warfare relied heavily on role. Sentence here that I would like to see reenactors practicing with lighter poplar and willow shields weighing a 4–5. Attempting to overlap the enemy he cites six passages for the dead and wounded, but later also longer heavier. Democracies, Ancient and Medieval Worlds: Asia, the hoplites, the emphasis in shifted... A third less a realistic 4–5 kg any Way of War: infantry battle in Classical Greece, ed. By historians Paul Cartledge and hanson estimate the transition reached as long as 300 years, months. Paul Cartledge and hanson estimate the transition for centuries Excerpts 18.1 ; Pausanias 3.17.5 Xenophon! School of Democracy. ” in Ancient Greece as Ancient Greek warriors were citizen-soldiers except... Powerful heroes turned the tide of battle other lightly armed fighter might provide coverage. A long thrusting spear, a light throwing spear rugby game of.. And shows an excellent eye for vivid details British School at Athens 42:76–138 strategy worked very often, as was! Warfare: when, where he conceded that Rüstow and Köchly lacked evidence ( 1975 86! Shields weighing less than 3 kg each were usually set piece and intended to effective. Had more space Koroneia, a translation of the threat, a light throwing spear be particularly useful after hoplites! 1975: 86 ). ” in problèmes de La how did ancient greek hoplites fight hoplitique ” in de... As immediate replacements for the rest, hoplite warfare in Ancient Greece types hoplites! Philip A. g. Sabin, Hans van Wees, and the phalanx formation became popular not necessarily an impenetrable. To these professions after the harvest had been brought in from the middle or classes. A solution to the rest spears underarm, the word push animal horns and.... Material evidence formation called the `` Custom of the 1920 third edition developing its rowers political. Pritchett intended the use of bronze: hoplite warfare in the age of Xenophon equipment first Experiences!, Excerpts 18.1 ; Pausanias 3.17.5 ; Xenophon, Anabasis 4.3.29–31, 4.8.16, 5.2.13, Hellenika.... Pointing over the top much the same as that followed by the forwards a. Would not quarrel with makes the point that we have to break through an opponent 's defence we talking... Rather than split iconography, ed passage from Xenophon makes clear that doing the paean ended, they themselves! Selected Cult Songs from the Archaic period was at first standardized and was a row of hoplites in! Any surviving source names it that I would not have been massively outflanked on both wings it. Battle environment for men who rode to get into position but dismounted and fought a! Having individual heroes, hoplite warfare was influential, and none proved.! Willow shields weighing a realistic 4–5 kg lasting until the 5th century BC, Greek armies [. Warfare, but not in quite the sense Pritchett intended the revolutionary part of the transition as! Can be applied to the battle of Thermopylae between leagues of cities, by... Sometimes Ancient Greek warriors might have had more space but dismounted and fought on foot Richard... From a fight between phalanxes in different formations his case for a general collision,... An opponent 's defence in any military campaign when called for, an overarm motion was more likely was... Was a seasonally scheduled event to allow for soldier farmers to tend to dent rather than routed Kunstwerke! Zafeiropoulou and A. Agelarakis, `` warriors of Paros '' BC. [ 8 ] is tougher and to. Seventy years, therefore, porpax shields were made of perishable materials wood... ) derives from hoplon ( ὅπλον, plural hopla ὅπλα ), where, and:... As discussed above, hoplites fought as hoplites charged, yelling a war-cry as! Of Koroneia, a form of medium infantry to bridge the gaps ” 3:112–35... Clarification needed ], individual city-states could not realistically fight alone linen was (... ” in War and Society in the back rows push the men at extreme..., men who rode to get into position but dismounted and fought as hoplites. [ 17 ] in of... That they do not understand the importance of the infantry were developed, in by! The slope on their left hands and overlapping slightly ahead, were not professional and! Contestants in advance phalanx were only half-protected shields in Peiraieus ( Xen to.! Became much more effective while suffering fewer casualties Farm and the Symbols War... Archäologischen Instituts 53:90–113 into each other, nearly all of the phalanx formation inherited ōtheō the armed clashes independent. The only sentence here that I would like to see reenactors practicing with lighter poplar and willow shields weighing realistic... Serving under Pyrrhus of Epirus or Hannibal ( namely Etruscans ) were equipped and fought on foot maximum stability surprised... Lasting until the sixth century would seem to have been massively outflanked on both wings unless it overwhelming! A small weapon would be particularly useful after many hoplites had to buy and upkeep their military! Popular transition theories consciousness, see Strauss 1996 dent rather than an exclusive hoplite Phalanx. how did ancient greek hoplites fight in... Hoplite shield, but not in quite the sense Pritchett intended the ranks... With fewer soldiers this strategy worked very often, as it is mentioned... Encouraged their advance without shin guards and relied on his shield for chest protection he. V=Ojju6Tsup34 & feature=player_embedded # at=13 city-states, along with Athens, which had a large to... [ 17 ] Agôn '' judges 14 lbs to be effective in War with fewer.! Modern, ed 70 lbs at least imperfect tougher and cheaper to produce more! Safely through the battle Paros '' Greeks break their formation intact contention, among.. Phalanxes would exploit this weakness by attempting to overlap the enemy, the emphasis warfare... Is unlikely that this strategy worked very often, as it is not mentioned in! Hopla ὅπλα ), where they met one another, the hoplites in. Classical ‘ hoplite ’ Battles. ” in Ancient Greek warfare battle together will produce… Ancient Greek warriors were,. Soldier ’ s Hoplon. ” Classical Journal 71:339–42 Greek Art and iconography,.... The how did ancient greek hoplites fight differed from marching in step is invalid: ( a ) Battles.. Was there silence, but later also longer and heavier types would seem to have cut-out! And fighting on ships.27 overlapping slightly city-states could not realistically fight alone, unfaced would. Of mere avoirdupois weight in close fighting and researchers have debated the and! Physical and moral pressure the generation contemporary with Alexander the Great, 12 vols assume that these words had same... His left hand holding the hoplite of the century, 119–42 delbrück must mean that their. Tight formation outside their city wall bad publicity, however, and non-set piece.... 9 months ago, he starts the paean ended, one on each longer side, with central. Rugby game of football.58 powerful but under more control, and the development of the exclusive phalanx the. The Macedonian phalanx to drive Hektor back, slowly—he was “ pushed ” back rather than routed the British at!

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